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Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation that comes from the sun and man-made sources like tanning beds and welding torches.

There are different types of radiations, ranging from very high radiation like gamma and X-rays to very low-energy radiation like radio waves. UV rays have more energy than visible light, but not as much as x-rays and in the middle of this spectrum.

Higher-energy UV rays are a form of ionizing radiation. This means they have enough energy to remove (ionize) an electron from an atom or molecule. Ionizing radiation can damage the DNA (genes) in cells, which in turn may lead to cancer. The highest-energy UV rays though don’t have enough energy to penetrate deeply into the body, so they mainly effect the skin.

UV radiation is divided into 3 main groups:

• UVA rays have the least energy among UV rays. These rays can cause skin cells to age and can cause some indirect damage to cells’ DNA. UVA rays are mainly linked to long-term skin damage such as wrinkles, but they are also thought to play a role in some skin cancers.
• UVB rays have slightly more energy than UVA rays, and can damage directly the DNA in skin cells. They are the main rays that causes sunburns. And also most skin cancers.
• UVC rays have more energy than the other types of UV rays. Fortunately, because of this, they react with ozone layer in the atmosphere and don’t reach the ground, so they are not normally a risk factor for skin cancer. Some man-made sources, such as arc welding torches, mercury lamps, and UV sanitizing bulbs used to kill bacteria and other germs also produce UVC rays.

Exposure to UV Radiation

Sunlight

Sunlight is the main source of UV radiation, even though UV rays make up only a small portion of the sun’s rays. Different types of UV rays reach the ground in different amounts. About 95% of the UV rays from the sun that reach the ground are UVA rays, with the remaining 5% being UVB rays.

UV rays reaching the ground depends on a number of factors, such as:

• Time of the day: UV rays are strongest between 10 am and 4 pm.
• Time of the year: UV rays are stronger during spring and summer months. This is less of a factor near the equator.
• Expanse from the equator (latitude): UV exposure goes down as you get farther from the equator.
• Height above sea level: More UV rays reach the ground at higher elevations.
• Clouds:  UV rays can get through to the ground, even on a cloudy day.
• Reflection off surfaces: UV rays can bounce off surfaces like water, sand, snow, pavement, or even grass, leading to an increase in UV exposure.
• Contents of the air: Ozone in the upper atmosphere, for example, filters out some UV radiation.

The amount of UV exposure a person gets depends on the strength of the rays, the length of time the skin is exposed, and whether the skin is protected with clothing or sunscreen.

Man-made sources of UV rays

Man-made sources can also be expose people to of UV rays. They include:

• Sunbeds and sunlamps (tanning beds and booths): The amount and type of UV radiation someone is exposed to from a tanning bed (or booth) depends on the specific lamps used in the bed, how long a person stays in the bed, and how many times the person uses it. Most modern UV tanning beds emit mostly UVA rays, with the rest being UVB.
• Phototherapy (UV therapy): Some skin problems (such as psoriasis) are helped by treatment with UV light. For a treatment known as PUVA, a drug called a psoralen is given first. The drug collects in the skin and makes it more sensitive to UV. Then the patient is treated with UVA radiation. Another treatment option is the use of UVB alone (without a drug).
• Black-light lamps: These lamps use bulbs that give off UV rays (mostly UVA). The bulb also gives off some visible light, but it has a filter that blocks most of that out while letting the UV rays through. These bulbs have a purple glow and are used to view fluorescent material. Bug-zapping insect traps also use “black light” that gives off some UV rays, but the bulbs use a different filter that causes them to glow blue.
• Mercury-vapor lamps: Mercury-vapor lamps can be used to light large public areas such as streets or gyms. They do not expose people to UV rays if they are working properly. They are actually made up of 2 bulbs: an inner bulb that emits light and UV rays, and an outer bulb that filters out the UV. UV exposure can only occur if the outer bulb is broken. Some mercury-vapor lamps are designed to turn themselves off when the outer bulb breaks. The ones that don’t have this feature are only supposed to be installed behind a protective layer or in areas where people wouldn’t be exposed if part of the bulb breaks.
• High-pressure xenon and xenon-mercury arc lamps, plasma torches, and welding arcs: Xenon and xenon-mercury arc lamps are used as sources of light and UV rays for many things, such as UV “curing” (of inks, coatings, etc.), disinfection, to simulate sunlight (to test solar panels, for example), and even in some car headlights. Most of these, along with plasma torches and welding arcs, are mainly of concern in terms of workplace UV exposure.

UV causes cancer

Most skin cancers are a result of exposure to the UV rays in sunlight. The risk of melanoma, a more serious but less common type of skin cancer, is also related to sun exposure, although perhaps not as strongly. Skin cancer has also been linked to exposure to some man-made sources of UV rays as discussed above.

Many studies have found that basal and squamous cell skin cancers are linked to certain behaviors that put people in the sun, as well as a number of markers of sun exposure, such as:

• Spending time in the sun for recreation
• Spending a lot of time in the sun in a swimsuit
• Living in an area that gets a lot of sunlight
• Having had serious sunburns in the past (with more sunburns linked to a higher risk)
• Having signs of sun damage to the skin, such as liver spots, actinic keratoses (rough skin patches that can be precancerous), and solar elastosis (thickened, dry, wrinkled skin caused by sun exposure) on the neck

Studies have also found links between certain behaviors and markers of sun exposure and melanoma of the skin, including:

• Activities that lead to “intermittent sun exposure,” like sunbathing, water sports, and taking vacations in sunny places
• Previous sunburns
• Signs of sun damage to the skin, such as liver spots, actinic keratoses, and solar elastosis

Because UV rays don’t penetrate deeply into the body, they wouldn’t be expected to cause cancer in internal organs, and most research has not found such links. However, some studies have shown possible links to some other cancers, including Merkel cell carcinoma, which is a less common type of skin cancer and melanoma of the eye.

Studies have found that people who use tanning beds (or booths) have a higher risk of skin cancer, including melanoma and squamous and basal cell skin cancers. The risk of melanoma is higher if the person started indoor tanning before age 30 or 35, and the risk of basal and squamous cell skin cancer is higher if indoor tanning started before age 25.

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) is part of the World Health Organization (WHO). One of its major goals is to identify causes of cancer. Based on the available data, IARC has made the following determinations:

• Solar radiation is carcinogenic to humans.
• Use of UV-emitting tanning devices is carcinogenic to humans.
• UV radiation (including UVA, UVB, and UVC) is carcinogenic to humans.

The FDA has also proposed a new rule to ban the use of indoor tanning devices by anyone under age 18, to require tanning facilities to inform adult users about the health risks of indoor tanning, and to require a signed risk acknowledgment from all users.  Some US states have already banned indoor tanning by all people younger than 18, while others have banned use by younger teens and children.

UV rays and vitamin D

Your skin makes vitamin D naturally when it is exposed to UV rays from the sun. The amount of vitamin D the skin makes depends on many things, including the age, how dark the skin is, and how strong the sunlight is.

Vitamin D has many health benefits. It might even help lower the risk of some cancers. At this time, doctors aren’t sure what the optimal level of vitamin D is, but a lot of research is being done in this area.

Ways to Help Reduce Exposure to UV Radiation

Some of the ways to help ensure you’re not getting too much sun:

• If you’re going to be outside, simply staying in the shade, especially during midday hours, is one of the best ways to limit your UV exposure from sunlight.
• Protect your skin with clothing that covers your arms and legs.
• Wear a hat to protect your head, face, and neck.
• Wear sunglasses that block UV rays to protect your eyes and the skin around them.
• Use sunscreen to help protect skin that isn’t covered with clothing.

Chances of getting cancer can highly be reduced by lifestyle choices, at individual level, each one has the ability to help reduce the risks of getting cancer through their ways of living. Cancer screening, vaccination and most importantly the right health choices helps in lowering the risks for many common cancer types.

Better Healthy Choices

Cancer risks can be reduced by practicing healthy choices like avoiding tobacco, maintaining the right weight, protecting your skin from the harmful rays of sun and limiting the amount of alcohol.

Lung cancers, mouth, voice box, throat, pancreas, kidney, cervix and bladder cancers have been linked to the use of tobacco. Avoid being around secondhand smoking (SHS) also called environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) as this has also led to many cases of cancer. Chewing of tobacco has also been linked with the cancers of mouth, throat and pancreas. It is therefore important to quit tobacco smoking to help prevent cancer.

• Eating a healthy diet can also help reduce the risks of cancer. Eating plenty of vegetables, fruits and other foods from plant sources like legumes and whole grains; limiting fat from animal sources and refined sugars and eating lighter and lean food
• Limit processed meats. Eating processed meat often can slightly increase the risk of certain types of cancer. This news comes from a report from the International Agency for Research on Cancer, the cancer agency of the World Health Organization.

People who eat a Mediterranean diet that includes extra-virgin olive oil and mixed nuts might have a reduced risk of breast cancer. The Mediterranean diet focuses mostly on plant-based foods, such as fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes and nuts.

Screening

Getting screening tests regularly may find breast, cervical, and colorectal (colon) cancers early, when treatment is likely to work best. Lung cancer screening is recommended for some people who are at high risk.  Screening raises the chances of finding cancer early. That’s when treatment is most likely to succeed.

Vaccination

Vaccines (shots) also help lower cancer risk. The human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine helps prevent most cervical cancers and several other kinds of cancer, Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a sexually transmitted virus that can lead to cervical cancer and other genital cancers as well as squamous cell cancers of the head and neck. The HPV vaccine is recommended for girls and boys ages 11 and 12. Hepatitis B can increase the risk of developing liver cancer. Adults at high risk of getting hepatitis B are people who have sex with more than one partner, people who have one sexual partner who has sex with others, and people with sexually transmitted infections.

What is Prostate Cancer?

Prostate cancer is cancer that occurs in the prostate. The prostate is a small walnut-shaped gland in males that produces the seminal fluid that nourishes and transports sperm.

Prostate cancer is one of the most common types of cancer. Many prostate cancers grow slowly and are confined to the prostate gland, where they may not cause serious harm. However, while some types of prostate cancer grow slowly and may need minimal or even no treatment, other types are aggressive and can spread quickly.

Risk Factors

Factors that can increase your risk of prostate cancer include:

• Older age. Your risk of prostate cancer increases as you age. It’s most common after age 50.
• Race. For reasons not yet determined, Black people have a greater risk of prostate cancer than do people of other races. In Black people, prostate cancer is also more likely to be aggressive or advanced.
• Family history. If a blood relative, such as a parent, sibling or child, has been diagnosed with prostate cancer, your risk may be increased. Also, if you have a family history of genes that increase the risk of breast cancer (BRCA1 or BRCA2) or a very strong family history of breast cancer, your risk of prostate cancer may be higher.
• Obesity. People who are obese may have a higher risk of prostate cancer compared with people considered to have a healthy weight, though studies have had mixed results. In obese people, the cancer is more likely to be more aggressive and more likely to return after initial treatment.

How does prostate cancer develop?

Prostate cancer develops when abnormal cells in the prostate gland grow in an uncontrolled way, forming a malignant tumour. It is estimated that more than 25,400 males were diagnosed with prostate cancer in 2023. The average age at diagnosis is 70 years old.

Symptoms & Reports

If you are experiencing new, severe, or persistent symptoms, contact a health care provider.

Early stage prostate cancer may not cause any signs or symptoms. Symptoms commonly noted during the advanced stage include:

• Trouble urinating
• Frequent urination
• Decreased force of urination
• Difficulty starting or stopping urine stream
• Blood in semen
• Pain or discomfort in the pelvic area
• Bone Pain

Complications

Complications of prostate cancer and its treatments include:

• Cancer that spreads (metastasizes). Prostate cancer can spread to nearby organs, such as your bladder, or travel through your bloodstream or lymphatic system to your bones or other organs. Prostate cancer that spreads to the bones can cause pain and broken bones. Once prostate cancer has spread to other areas of the body, it may still respond to treatment and may be controlled, but it’s unlikely to be cured.
• Incontinence. Both prostate cancer and its treatment can cause urinary incontinence. Treatment for incontinence depends on the type you have, how severe it is and the likelihood it will improve over time. Treatment options may include medications, catheters and surgery.
• Erectile dysfunction. Erectile dysfunction can result from prostate cancer or its treatment, including surgery, radiation or hormone treatments. Medications, vacuum devices that assist in achieving erection and surgery are available to treat erectile dysfunction.

Prevention

• Choose a healthy diet full of fruits and vegetables. Eat a variety of fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Fruits and vegetables contain many vitamins and nutrients that can contribute to your health.

Whether you can prevent prostate cancer through diet has yet to be conclusively proved. But eating a healthy diet with a variety of fruits and vegetables can improve your overall health.

• Choose healthy foods over supplements. No studies have shown that supplements play a role in reducing your risk of prostate cancer. Instead, choose foods that are rich in vitamins and minerals so that you can maintain healthy levels of vitamins in your body.
• Exercise most days of the week. Exercise improves your overall health, helps you maintain your weight and improves your mood. Try to exercise most days of the week. If you’re new to exercise, start slow and work your way up to more exercise time each day.
• Maintain a healthy weight. If your current weight is healthy, work to maintain it by choosing a healthy diet and exercising most days of the week. If you need to lose weight, add more exercise and reduce the number of calories you eat each day. Ask your doctor for help creating a plan for healthy weight loss.

Stomach cancer, which is also called gastric cancer, is a growth of cells that starts in the stomach. The stomach is in the upper middle part of the belly, just below the ribs. The stomach helps to break down and digest food.

Stomach cancer can happen in any part of the stomach. In most of the world, stomach cancers happen in the main part of the stomach. This part is called the stomach body.

In the United States, stomach cancer is more likely to start by the gastroesophageal junction. This is the part where the long tube that carries food you swallow meets the stomach. The tube that carries food to the stomach is called the esophagus.

Where the cancer starts in the stomach is one factor health care providers think about when making a treatment plan. Other factors might include the cancer’s stage and the type of cells involved. Treatment often includes surgery to remove the stomach cancer. Other treatments may be used before and after surgery.

Stomach cancer treatment is most likely to be successful if the cancer is only in the stomach. The prognosis for people with small stomach cancers is quite good. Many can expect to be cured. Most stomach cancers are found when the disease is advanced and a cure is less likely. Stomach cancer that grows through the stomach wall or spreads to other parts of the body is harder to cure.

Symptoms

Signs and symptoms of stomach cancer may include:

• Trouble swallowing
• Belly pain
• Feeling bloated after eating
• Feeling full after eating small amounts of food
• Not feeling hungry when you would expect to be hungry
• Heartburn
• Indigestion
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Losing weight without trying
• Feeling very tired
• Stools that look black

Stomach cancer doesn’t always cause symptoms in its early stages. When they happen, symptoms might include indigestion and pain in the upper part of the belly. Symptoms might not happen until the cancer is advanced. Later stages of stomach cancer might cause symptoms such as feeling very tired, losing weight without trying, vomiting blood and having black stools.

Stomach cancer that spreads to other parts of the body is called metastatic stomach cancer. It causes symptoms specific to where it spreads. For example, when cancer spreads to the lymph nodes it might cause lumps you can feel through the skin. Cancer that spreads to the liver might cause yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes. If cancer spreads within the belly, it might cause fluid to fill the belly. The belly might look swollen.

When to see a doctor

If you have signs and symptoms that worry you, make an appointment with your health care provider. Many conditions can cause symptoms that are like the ones caused by stomach cancer. Your provider might test for those other causes first before testing for stomach cancer.

Studies have shown an increased incidence and shorter survival rate of cancer affected by air pollution. The greenhouse gases emitted by the combustion of fossil fuels are contributing to climate change, climate change may worsen air quality by changing the ventilation, dilution, precipitation and other removal processes, and the amplification of atmospheric chemistry.

Besides outdoor air pollution, household air pollution is also a part of the linkage. There are still millions of people who are not able to cook with clean energy, which results in severe indoor air pollution as well as greenhouse gases, that is, the major factor affecting climate change. Indoor emissions from the household combustion of coal are a Group 1 carcinogen. The household combustion of biomass fuels and emissions from high-temperature frying have been concluded to be possibly carcinogenic to humans by the IARC.

It is estimated that 3.8 million premature deaths (8% from lung cancer) are attributable to household air pollution from cooking with kerosene or solid fuels each year. The Global Burden of Disease Study suggests that indoor air pollution is associated with the risk of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. The 2.6 billion people who have less access to cleaner fuels, mostly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), suffer an increasing cancer burden and are also exposed to a huge amount of air pollution. The vicious cycle of climate change, air pollution, and cancer will keep rolling and provide a devastating cancer burden without intervention.

With the accumulation of greenhouse gases, global warming, and changing meteorological factors, there is an increasing frequency of abnormally hot and cold temperatures, which are the direct expression of climate variability. Although it is not clear whether it is the increased temperature of warm months, carcinomatous meningitis was observed to have a higher incidence in these months. Evidence from more studies is warranted to confirm the causal association.

The direct effects of extreme temperatures like heat waves may worsen the conditions of cancer patients because of their impaired thermoregulation and immune function. Occupational heat exposure, exacerbated by climate change, is also associated with several cancers, including female breast cancer. The climate-change-induced ozone depletion led to increasing ultraviolet radiation (UV) exposure, which will lead to increased risks of melanoma and other skin cancers (e.g., squamous cell skin cancer). In consequence, melanoma survivors have an increased risk of developing second primary cancers, such as prostate cancer.

The changing temperature and precipitation will also lead to changes in natural disasters and food production, which may increase the risk of cancer indirectly. Long-term exposure to wildfires has been suggested to increase the incidence of lung cancer and brain tumors. Extreme weather and natural disasters caused by climate change may reduce people’s physical activity by limiting active venues and suitable temperatures. Less physical activity could increase the risks of colon, female breast, and uterine cancers. Furthermore, inactivity-induced excess body weight also increases the risk of cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, genital organs, and female breast.

Breast cancer is a form of cancer that primarily affects the breast. Though commonly associated with women, men too can get breast cancer, though it is rare. After cervical cancer, breast cancer is the most common cancer diagnosed in women in Kenya.

Substantial support for breast cancer awareness, screening and research is needed to change the cancer situation in the country.

Signs and symptoms of breast cancer may include:

• A breast lump or thickening that feels different from the surrounding tissue
• Change in the size, shape or appearance of a breast
• Changes to the skin over the breast, such as dimpling
• A newly inverted nipple
• Peeling, scaling, crusting or flaking of the pigmented area of skin surrounding the nipple (areola) or breast skin
• Redness or pitting of the skin over your breast, like the skin of an orange

If you find a lump or other change in your breast — even if a recent mammogram was normal — make an appointment with your doctor for prompt evaluation.

Causes

Doctors know that breast cancer occurs when some breast cells begin to grow abnormally. These cells divide more rapidly than healthy cells do and continue to accumulate, forming a lump or mass. Cells may spread (metastasize) through your breast to your lymph nodes or to other parts of your body.

Breast cancer most often begins with cells in the milk-producing ducts (invasive ductal carcinoma). Breast cancer may also begin in the glandular tissue called lobules (invasive lobular carcinoma) or in other cells or tissue within the breast.

Researchers have identified hormonal, lifestyle and environmental factors that may increase your risk of breast cancer. But it’s not clear why some people who have no risk factors develop cancer, yet other people with risk factors never do. It’s likely that breast cancer is caused by a complex interaction of your genetic makeup and your environment.

Cancer impacts on children in many ways, depending on the type, stage, and treatment of the cancer, as well as the age and personality of the child. Some of the possible impacts are:

• Physical effects: Cancer and its treatment can cause various physical effects, such as pain, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, hair loss, infections, and scars. Some of these effects may be temporary, while others may be permanent or long-lasting. Cancer can also affect the growth and development of children, especially if they receive radiation therapy or certain chemotherapy drugs
• Psychological effects: Cancer and its treatment can also affect the mental and emotional well-being of children. Some children may experience anxiety, depression, fear, anger, sadness, or guilt. They may have trouble coping with the uncertainty and stress of their illness, the changes in their appearance and abilities, and the disruption of their normal routines. 
• Social effects: Cancer and its treatment can also impact the social life of children. Some children may feel isolated, lonely, or different from their peers. They may miss school and other activities, lose contact with friends, or face bullying or teasing. They may also have difficulties with communication, relationships, and self-esteem. 
•  Cancer impacts on children are complex and varied, but they can be managed with appropriate care and support. Children with cancer have shown remarkable resilience and courage in facing their illness. They can still enjoy life and achieve their goals despite their challenges.

While the past two decades have seen scale-up of capacity in select LMIC, access to childhood cancer services remains limited in most Low and Middle Income Countries (LMIC) and generally correlates with expenditure on health and broader health system capacity.

There are currently no global data on the availability of childhood cancer services in different countries. In the 2019 World Health Organization (WHO) NCD Country Capacity Survey, over 90% of HIC reported having all fundamental cancer diagnosis and treatment services, namely pathology services, cancer surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy, Children with cancer and their families, both in High Income Countries (HIC) and LMIC, suffer short- and long-term psychosocial, emotional, social and economic consequences secondary to cancer and its treatment.

For example, the availability of radiotherapy and complex surgical care for children is also contingent on paediatric anaesthesia, which is required for those services to be available and effective. Conditions, psychological response, coping behaviors linked to the child, familial and economic impact of the disease. Direct costs can include travel to the cancer centre, payment for services and/or purchasing of products related to the care of their children. Indirect costs can also be substantial, such as reductions in their incomes due to interruption or loss of employment for parents. These result in negative short-term-effects on household earnings, including potential negative longterm effects on employment. When compounded by an inability to access financial assistance programmes, families can suffer significant financial hardship, including being pushed into poverty

Childhood cancer survivors may also suffer long-term financial and psychological, social and neurocognitive difficulties. This leads to increased difficulty with friendships and the need for special education, especially when reaching the adolescent years. Many of these difficulties can persist into adult years. The adolescent population is particularly sensitive to these effects, given the disruption in self-determination and gain of independence resulting in an enduring psychological impact. For this reason, this population requires specialized psychosocial care and follow-up after treatment

Psychological Response

• Social isolation

 • Neurocognitive difficulties

• Lack of specialized care

               • Unavailable schooling

Financial Hardship

• Unaffordable care

 • High indirect costs such as travel expenses

 • Reduced family income

• Lost employment

Coping Behaviors

 • Treatment abandonment

• Noncompliant behavior