National Cancer Institute Kenya

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  • Breast Cancer Status in Kenya – National Cancer Registry of Kenya (NaCaRe-KE)

    The National Cancer Registry of Kenya (NaCaRe-KE) was established in 2021 and launched in the same year.  The first report on the status of cancer in Kenya, utilized 6,778 records for the period July 2021 to June 2022, notified from 42 facilities across 21 counties.  From the report, it is established that three most common cancers are breast (15.1%), cervix (13.3%) and oesophagus (11.8%). 

    The total breast cancer cases notified by county of usual residence between the years 2020 and 2023 amounted to 4,824 people, Nairobi County leading with the highest number of diagnosed people at 550 followed by Nakuru County which registered 398 people. Counties that diagnosed the least number of breast cancer as notified to NaCaRe-KE included Turkana, Tana River and Wajir that registered 3, 2 and 1 cases respectively as shown in table 1 below.

    Table 1: Distribution by County of Usual Residence per Year – Filtered by Date of diagnosis

    County of Usual Residence2020202120222023TOTAL
     Nairobi County            1          51         354         144         550
     Nakuru County          96        105         130           67         398
     Nyeri County           96         179           94         369
     Kiambu County           14         199           70         283
     Machakos County           30         112           77         219
     Mombasa County            4          20           23         143         190
     Meru County          61          27           65           24         177
     Makueni County             8           96           49         153
     Kirinyaga County            1          33           69           49         152
     Muranga County             6         111           35         152
     Embu County            2          36           75           27         140
     Kitui County          22          19           59           32         132
     Kakamega County           23           65           40         128
     Kajiado County             9           47           36           92
     Laikipia County          10          13           36           33           92
     Nyandarua County          10          17           39           15           81
     Kisumu County           15           37           28           80
     Kilifi County            4            9            7           59           79
     Kisii County            1            7           37           30           75
     Siaya County           10           26           22           58
     Uasin Gishu County            1          29           21            7           58
     Taita Taveta County           13           21           19           53
     Bungoma County           16           16           14           46
     Busia County           15           17           11           43
     Vihiga County             8           15           20           43
     Nandi County             5           13           24           42
     Kwale County            1            3            4           26           34
     Baringo County            6          12            4            5           27
     Homa Bay County            1            5            9           12           27
     Migori County             3           15            9           27
     Tharaka Nithi County             6           15            5           26
     Trans Nzoia County             9            8            9           26
     Kericho County            1            8           10            5           24
     Nyamira County             4            6           14           24
     Bomet County           10           10            2           22
     Narok County             6            5            9           20
     Garissa County             4            8            1           13
     Lamu County            1            2            1            6           10
     Isiolo County              5            2            7
     Marsabit County             2            1            3            6
     West Pokot County             2            2            2            6
     Elgeyo Marakwet County             2            2            1            5
     Mandera County              5             5
     Samburu County            1             2            1            4
     Turkana County             1            1            1            3
     Tana River County              1            1            2
     Wajir County              1             1
     Non-resident             16            4           20
     Missing        357        207           33            3         600
     TOTAL        581        920     2,033     1,290     4,824

    Distribution by County of Notification per Year – Filtered by Date of Diagnosis

    Distribution by County of notification means the county in which the cancer case was diagnosed. From table 2 below, it is noted that Nairobi County leads by 2150 of cases notified; meaning therefore that most people seek cancer medication at the capital city.

    Table 2: Distribution by County of Notification per Year – Filtered by Date of Diagnosis

    County of Usual Res 2020 2021 2022 2023 TOTAL
     Nairobi County        218        215      1,288         429      2,150
     Nakuru County        128        126         124           82         460
     Nyeri County         117         143         125         385
     Machakos County        101          73           78           65         317
     Mombasa County          18          31            7         242         298
     Uasin Gishu County         116           79           36         231
     Kakamega County           89           49           42         180
     Kisumu County           34           42           71         147
     Meru County          61          32           25           23         141
     Embu County            3          47           65           24         139
     Makueni County             56           19           75
     Kitui County          22          13           17           14           66
     Bomet County          20          11           13            4           48
     Taita Taveta County           13           15           13           41
     Kiambu County              4           31           35
     Kisii County              2           28           30
     Nandi County              3           24           27
     Garissa County          10            3            8            2           23
     Laikipia County              5            5           10
     Muranga County             10            10
     Kirinyaga County               8            8
     Vihiga County               3            3
     TOTAL        581        920      2,033      1,290      4,824

    In terms of distribution of cancer type in the breast (primary site), Breast NOS (excludes Skin of breast C44.5) accounts for 94.44% of the all cancers of the breast; 4556 of the total 4824 as notified between 2020 and 2023. Breast NOS in simple terms is the Invasive Ductal Carcinoma of Breast, Not Otherwise Specified (NOS), they are invasive breast cancers, which have a tendency to be aggressive and spread. This subset comprises the largest group and also the most common type of breast cancers as seen in table 2 below.

    Table 3: Distribution of Cancer Type by /year – Filtered by Date of Diagnosis:

    Primary Site 2020 2021 2022 2023 TOTAL
     Breast NOS (excludes Skin of breast C44.5)        542        893     1,957     1,164     4,556
     Upper outer quadrant of breast          10          12           20           27           69
     Central portion of breast            2            1           20           28           51
     Upper inner quadrant of breast            3            5            7           19           34
     Overlapping lesion of breast          19            6            6            3           34
     Axillary tail of breast             11           17           28
     Lower inner quadrant of breast            4             9            8           21
     Nipple             3            1           15           19
     Lower outer quadrant of breast            1             2            9           12
     TOTAL        581        920     2,033     1,290     4,824

    In Kenya, the majority of breast cancer cases discovered are at stage IV, accounting for 37.2% of all cases as seen in table 4 below. This is the leading factor towards mortalities as late discoveries reduces the likelihood of survival. Early screening of breast cancer increases the chances of managing the disease through prompt treatment and care, therefore increasing the chances of survival.

    Table 4: Distribution by Stage at Diagnosis per Year – Filtered by Date of Diagnosis:

    Stage at Diagnosis2020202120222023TOTALPercentage
    In situ 22036582.6%
    Stage I121856291155.1%
    Stage II256723521053723.8%
    Stage III4414425626470831.4%
    Stage IV5617137224184037.2%
    TOTAL1374029397802258100.0%

  • Understanding Brain Tumors: A Guide for Patients

    A brain tumor is a growth of cells in the brain or near it. Brain tumors can happen in the brain tissue. Brain tumors also can happen near the brain tissue. Nearby locations include nerves, the pituitary gland, the pineal gland, and the membranes that cover the surface of the brain.

    Brain tumors can begin in the brain. These are called primary brain tumors. Sometimes, cancer spreads to the brain from other parts of the body. These tumors are secondary brain tumors, also called metastatic brain tumors.

    Many different types of primary brain tumors exist. Some brain tumors aren’t cancerous. These are called noncancerous brain tumors or benign brain tumors. Noncancerous brain tumors may grow over time and press on the brain tissue. Other brain tumors are brain cancers, also called malignant brain tumors. Brain cancers may grow quickly. The cancer cells can invade and destroy the brain tissue.

    Brain tumors range in size from very small to very large. Some brain tumors are found when they are very small because they cause symptoms that you notice right away. Other brain tumors grow very large before they’re found. Some parts of the brain are less active than others. If a brain tumor starts in a part of the brain that’s less active, it might not cause symptoms right away. The brain tumor size could become quite large before the tumor is detected.

    Brain tumor treatment options depend on the type of brain tumor you have, as well as its size and location. Common treatments include surgery and radiation therapy.

    Types

    There are many types of brain tumors. The type of brain tumor is based on the kind of cells that make up the tumor. Special lab tests on the tumor cells can give information about the cells. Your health care team uses this information to figure out the type of brain tumor.

    Some types of brain tumors usually aren’t cancerous. These are called noncancerous brain tumors or benign brain tumors. Some types of brain tumors usually are cancerous. These types are called brain cancers or malignant brain tumors. Some brain tumor types can be benign or malignant.

    Benign brain tumors tend to be slow-growing brain tumors. Malignant brain tumors tend to be fast-growing brain tumors.

    Types of brain tumors include:

    • Gliomas and related brain tumors. Gliomas are growths of cells that look like glial cells. The glial cells surround and support nerve cells in the brain tissue. Types of gliomas and related brain tumors include astrocytoma, glioblastoma, oligodendroglioma and ependymoma. Gliomas can be benign, but most are malignant. Glioblastoma is the most common type of malignant brain tumor.
    • Choroid plexus tumors. Choroid plexus tumors start in cells that make the fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. This fluid is called cerebrospinal fluid. Choroid plexus tumors are located in the fluid-filled cavities in the brain, called the ventricles. Choroid plexus tumors can be benign or malignant. Choroid plexus carcinoma is the malignant form of this type of brain tumor. It’s more common in children.
    • Embryonal tumors. Embryonal tumors begin in cells that are left over from fetal development. The cells, called embryonal cells, stay in the brain after birth. Embryonal tumors are malignant brain tumors that happen most often in babies and young children. The most common type of embryonal tumor is medulloblastoma. It’s usually located in the lower back part of the brain, called the cerebellum.
    • Germ cell tumors. Germ cell tumors start in reproductive cells, called germ cells, that go on to become the sperm and egg cells. Germ cells are mostly in the ovaries and testicles. But sometimes they’re in other parts of the body, including the brain. When germ cell tumors happen in the brain, they’re often located near the pineal gland or the pituitary gland. Germ cell tumors are mostly benign. They’re more common in children.
    • Pineal tumors. Pineal tumors start in and around the brain’s pineal gland. The pineal gland is located in the center of the brain. It makes a hormone called melatonin that helps with sleep. Pineal tumors can be benign or malignant. Pineoblastoma is a malignant type of pineal tumor that’s most common in children.
    • Meningiomas. Meningiomas are brain tumors that start in the membranes around the brain and spinal cord. Meningiomas are usually benign, but sometimes they can be malignant. Meningiomas are the most common type of benign brain tumor.
    • Nerve tumors. Nerve tumors are growths that happen in and around nerves. The most common type that happens in the head is acoustic neuroma, also called schwannoma. This benign tumor is located on the main nerve that connects the inner ear to the brain.
    • Pituitary tumors. Brain tumors can begin in and around the pituitary gland. This small gland is located near the base of the brain. Most tumors that happen in and around the pituitary gland are benign. Pituitary tumors happen in the pituitary gland itself. Craniopharyngioma is a type of brain tumor that happens near the pituitary gland.
    • Other brain tumors. Many other types of rare tumors can happen in and around the brain. Tumors can start in the muscles, blood vessels and connective tissue around the brain. Tumors can form in the bones of the skull. Malignant brain tumors can start from the germ-fighting immune system cells in the brain. This type of brain cancer is called primary central nervous system lymphoma.

  • Improving Childhood Cancer Care: Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment

    Childhood cancer is a diverse and heterogeneous group of rare cancers that are unified by the age of the cohort, childhood cancer is defined as the group of cancer that arises between birth and 19 years of age.

    Care for cancer, like so many other diseases, reflects the inequalities and inequities in our societies. The impact on children is devastating. Each year, an estimated 400 000 children are diagnosed with cancer around the world. The vast majority of these children live in low- and middle-income countries, where treatment is often unavailable, unaffordable or of poor quality. The survival rate for these children is estimated to be between 15% and 45%. This compares to a survival rate of more than 80% in high-income countries.

    We continue to raise awareness about childhood cancer and express support for children and adolescents with cancer, survivors and their families. This is in line with WHO Global Initiative on Childhood Cancer, which aims at reaching at least a 60% survival rate for children with cancer by 2030.

    This new target represents a doubling of the global cure rate for children with cancer. The aims of the Initiative are two-fold: to increase prioritization of childhood cancer through awareness raising at global and national levels and to expand the capacity of countries to deliver best practice in childhood cancer care. 

    The institute is working to improve primary prevention of childhood cancers through:

    • Mitigation of risk factors and their determinants
    • Enhancing access to appropriate cancer screening services for early detection
    • Strengthening the referral pathway for patients with cancer and those suspected to have cancer
    • Promotion of access to optimal diagnostics, treatment, palliative care and survivorship
    • Strengthening cancer information systems, registration and surveillance

    This can be achieved through multi-sectorial approach which will involve both health and non-health sectors. It will also involve the recognition of the best practices and scientific evidence supported through monitoring and evaluation and research.

    The types of cancers that occur most often in children are different from those seen in adults. The most common cancers of children are:

    • Leukemia
    • Brain and spinal cord tumors
    • Neuroblastoma
    • Wilms tumor
    • Lymphoma (including both Hodgkin and non-Hodgkin)
    • Rhabdomyosarcoma
    • Retinoblastoma
    • Bone cancer (including osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma)

  • Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GISTs): Types, Causes, and Risk Factors

    A gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST) is a type of tumor that occurs in the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly in the stomach or small intestine. This type of tumor is thought to grow from specialized cells found in the gastrointestinal tract called interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) or precursors to these cells. Affected individuals can develop one or more tumors. GISTs are usually found in adults between ages 40 and 70; rarely, children and young adults develop this type of tumor.

    Small tumors may cause no signs or symptoms. However, some people with GISTs may experience pain or swelling in the belly area (abdomen), nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, or weight loss. Sometimes, tumors cause bleeding into the gastrointestinal tract, which may lead to low red blood cell counts and, consequently, weakness and tiredness. Bleeding into the intestines may cause black and tarry stools, and bleeding into the throat or stomach may cause vomiting of blood.

    Affected individuals with no family history of GIST typically have only one tumor (called a sporadic GIST). People with a family history of GISTs (called familial GISTs) often have multiple tumors and additional signs or symptoms, including noncancerous overgrowth (hyperplasia) of other cells in the gastrointestinal tract and patches of dark skin on various areas of the body. Some affected individuals have a skin condition called urticaria pigmentosa (also known as maculopapular cutaneous mastocytosis), which is characterized by raised patches of brownish skin that sting or itch when touched.

    A rare form of GIST, called succinate dehydrogenase (SDH)-deficient GIST, tends to occur in childhood or young adulthood and affects females more commonly than males. In this form, tumors are almost always in the stomach. Individuals with an SDH-deficient GIST have a high risk of developing other types of tumors, particularly noncancerous tumors in the nervous system called paragangliomas and noncancerous lung tumors called pulmonary chondromas. When GISTs occur in combination with paragangliomas, the condition is known as Carney-Stratakis syndrome; the combination of GISTs, paragangliomas, and pulmonary chondromas is known as Carney triad; and the combination of GISTs and pulmonary chondroma is known as incomplete Carney triad.

  • Enhancing Esophageal Cancer Care in Kenya: Policy Recommendations

    Esophageal Cancer Awareness Month helps spread information about esophageal cancer. This type of cancer affects the esophagus, the tube that food travels through from the mouth to the stomach.

    Esophageal cancer happens when tumors grow anywhere along the esophagus, the muscular tube that leads from the mouth to the stomach.

    If this type of cancer is detected early, treatment may be effective and the outlook is better. But most people do not receive a diagnosis until esophageal cancer is in the later stages.

    Symptoms of Esophageal Cancer

    If you or someone you know is exhibiting symptoms of esophageal cancer, seek medical attention immediately.

    Symptoms include:

    • Difficulty in swallowing
    • Unintentional weight loss
    • Chest pain
    • Heart burn
    • Indigestion
    • Coughing
    • Hoarse voice

    This is to bring to the attention of all stakeholders and general members of the public that the Cabinet Secretary for the Ministry of Health, pursuant to section 36 of the Cancer Prevention and Control Act, No. 15 of 2012 has developed:

    1. The Cancer Prevention and Control (Standards of Care) Rules, 2023

    2. The Cancer Prevention and Control (Public Awareness and Education) Rules, 2023

    3. The Cancer Prevention and Control (Cancer Registries) Rules, 2023

    4. The Cancer Prevention and Control (Consent to Research) Rules, 2023

    5. The Cancer Prevention and Control (Inspection and Certification) Rules, 2023

    Under the Statutory Instruments Act, 2013, the National Cancer Institute of Kenya plans to engage members of the public and stakeholders on the same through public hearings. The purpose of the hearings shall be to get oral submissions on the draft Regulations to ensure that persons likely to be affected by the Statutory Instruments have adequate opportunity to give their views on the Instruments. The Draft Regulations can be obtained from the Institute’s website (The National Cancer Institute of Kenya – NCI Kenya)

  • Breast Cancer Awareness in LMICs: Raising Awareness & Improving Access to Care

    This month provides an opportunity for us all to focus on breast cancer and its impact on those affected by the disease in our community.

    The total breast cancer cases notified by county of usual residence between the years 2020 and 2023 amounted to 4,824 people in Kenya, Nairobi County leading with the highest number of diagnosed people at 550 followed by Nakuru County which registered 398 people.

    Finding breast cancer early provides the best chance of surviving the disease. While mammograms can help to detect cancer before you can feel a lump, breast self-exams help to be familiar with how your breasts look and feel so you can alert your doctor if there are any changes.

    Take the time to ‘get to know’ how your breasts normally look and feel through normal regular activities such as showering, getting dressed, using body lotion or looking in the mirror.

    You don’t need to use a special technique, but ensure you look at and feel your breasts regularly. Make sure this includes all parts of your breast, your armpit and up to your collarbone.

    For women of all ages, it is recommended that you be breast aware.

    Changes to look for include:

    • a new lump or lumpiness, especially if it’s only in one breast
    • a change in the size or shape of your breast
    • a change to the nipple, such as crusting, ulcer, redness or inversion
    • a nipple discharge that occurs without squeezing
    • a change in the skin of your breast such as redness or dimpling
    • An unusual pain that doesn’t go away.

    Visit a doctor in case you notice any changes in your breast.

    Breast cancer signs

    According to doctors, it is quite difficult for breast cancer to get diagnosed for women under 40 because their breasts are denser. This means that a tumour, if present, is not likely to show up in a mammogram.

    The most common way to detect breast cancer in younger women is to keep a close check on the changes in your breasts. In fact, according to Healthline, a majority of young women diagnosed with breast cancer discover an abnormality themselves. If you notice any changes in your breast, like changes in the skin, nipple discharge, pain, tenderness, or a lump or mass in the breast or underarm area, please report it immediately to a doctor.

    Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers in women and there is a misconception among people that it only happens to older women. While it’s true that most breast cancers are found in women who are 40 years or older, it is imperative to know that it can strike any female at any age.

    Pain in any Area of The Breast

    Check for pain and tenderness in any area of your breast. While lumps don’t usually hurt, some may cause a prickly sensation. However, pain in your breasts can also be due to numerous other benign reasons and hormonal changes. 

    Unusual Nipple Discharge

    An unusual nipple discharge that’s clear, red, brown, or yellow (other than breast milk) can be an early sign of breast cancer. If you notice this, consult a doctor for an evaluation.

    Breast Changes

    Look for changes in shape, swelling, and difference in size, texture, or temperature of either one or both breasts.

    Unexplained Redness/Rash

    Early warning signs of breast cancer can include unexplained redness, swelling, itchiness, or rash on one or both breasts.

    Swelling around the Collarbone or Armpit

    Consult your doctor if you notice swelling around your collarbone or under the arm. It could be a sign that the breast cancer has spread to the lymph nodes in that area.

    While these are some of the early signs of breast cancer, it is important to remember that these can also be caused by benign conditions. It’s always best to consult a doctor so that they can evaluate and help you determine whether it is cause for concern.

    Apart from this, it’s also important to keep in mind that often, women with breast cancer have no symptoms. This is why regular breast screening is important to detect it. The main tool to diagnose breast cancer is a mammogram, which basically shows normal and abnormal breast tissue.

    It is recommended that women should start getting mammograms when they cross the age of 40 and should continue getting one every 1 or 2 years. Meanwhile, for women above the age of 20, monthly breast self-examination is recommended.

  • Cervical Cancer Screening: Importance of Pap smear.

    A Pap test, sometimes referred to as a Pap smear, is a treatment used to detect cervical cancer in female patients.

    Cells from your cervix, which is the lower, thin end of your uterus that is at the top of your vagina, are collected for a Pap smear.

    You have a better chance of being cured if you have a Pap smear early enough to detect cervical cancer. A Pap smear can also find alterations in your cervical cells that point to the potential for cancer to arise in the future. Your first step in preventing the potential onset of cervical cancer is to have a Pap smear early to identify these abnormal cells.

    The Pap smear is usually done in conjunction with a pelvic exam. In women older than age 30, the Pap test may be combined with a test for human papillomavirus (HPV) — a common sexually transmitted infection that can cause cervical cancer. In some cases, the HPV test may be done instead of a Pap smear.

    Pap smears are crucial for women’s healthcare and offer a number of advantages, including:

    • Pap smears may detect cervical cell changes in your body that could turn into cancer if left untreated 
    • Pap smears can help find cervical cancer in its early stages, making it easier to treat
    • Pap smears allow for early detection which could mean less treatment and less recovery
    • Pap smears catch HPV that has been dormant. The HPV virus can be dormant for years and then suddenly become active so it is still important for all women to get Paps, regardless of age or sexual activity
    • Pap smears are extremely accurate and regular screenings can reduce cervical cancer rates and mortality by at least 80%

  • CURRENT CANCER TYPES THAT CAN BE SCREENED

    Cancer screening and testing is the process of checking your body for cancer when you have no symptoms or signs. The main purposes for cancer screening are:

    • Help prevent cancer deaths
    • Reduce the number of people developing disease
    • Helps the government for future planning in the fight against cancer

    Development of new cancer screening tests is now an actively cancer research area. Not all types of cancer can currently be screened. Currently, cancer screening is available for the following types of cancers.

    Breast cancer

    Skin cancer

    Lung cancer

    Cervical cancer

    Prostate cancer

    Head and neck cancers

    Colorectal cancer

    Screening Breast Cancer

    Breast cancer screening can be done through the following tests:

    Breast self-examination

    Mammography

    Clinical breasts examination

    Magnetic resonance images (MRI)

    Mammography is a special type of x-ray specifically designed to view the whole breast. The images produced during a mammogram can show tumors or other irregularities in the breast that cannot be felt during examinations or through other breast changes.

    When it comes to clinical-examination, a medical expert feels and looks for any changes in the breast’s size or shape when doing a clinical breast examination. The examiner also checks the nipples and breasts for changes in skin texture.

    Breast self-examination – The best technique to test for breast cancer at home is through self-examination. You examine and feel your own breasts to check for any changes during a breast self-examination. You should consult a doctor if you detect any changes.

    The routine detection of breast cancer does not include an MRI. But individuals who are at a higher risk of developing breast cancer, those who have dense breasts, or those who discover a lump during a breast exam might find it useful.

    Screening for Cervical Cancer

    The common tests used for screening cervical cancer include:

    1. Human Papillomavirus (HPV) test – The human papillomavirus (HPV) test identifies the presence of human papillomavirus, a virus which can lead to the growth of genital warts and abnormal cervical cells which can cause cervical cancer. Doctors may recommend the HPV test if:

    • One is age 30 and above
    • When the Pap test is abnormal, presenting a typical squamous cells of undetermined significance.

    Currently there is no HPV test for men, it is only available to women. Men can however still be infected with HPV and can transmit the virus to other women.

    2. Pap test – A Pap test, commonly known as a Pap smear, is a procedure a doctor uses to check for cervical cancer in female patients. Additionally, it may highlight changes in your cervical cells that could later develop into cancer. A Pap smear is done to look for changes in cervical cells before they turn into cancer, finding cell changes early can help prevent one from getting cancer.

    Screening for Colorectal Cancer

    There are many different ways for testing colorectal cancer including:

    Colonoscopy

    Colonoscopy is a test used to look for changes — such as irritated tissues, swollen polyps or cancer in the colon and rectum. During a colonoscopy, a long, flexible tube with a tiny video camera at the tip of the tube allows the doctor to view the inside of the entire colon. If necessary, polyps or other types of abnormal tissue can be removed through the scope during a colonoscopy. Tissue samples (biopsies) can be taken during a colonoscopy as well.

    Sigmoidoscopy

    A sigmoidoscopy, also called a flexible sigmoidoscopy, is a procedure that lets your doctor look inside your sigmoid colon by using a flexible tube with a light on it. It helps your doctor check for abnormal cells and polyps. Typically, pieces of tissue will be taken as samples to check for any abnormal cell changes.

    Fecal occult blood test (FOBT)

    Fecal occult blood test (FOBT) is a test that checks for occult or hidden blood in the stool. A small sample of stool is placed in a special collecting tube and submitted to a doctor or laboratory for examination. Blood in the stool could indicate colon cancer or other issues such as polyps, ulcers, or haemorrhoids.

    CT Colonography

    Computed tomographic (CT) colonography, also called CTC, virtual colonoscopy (VC) or CT pneumocolon, is a powerful minimally invasive technique for colorectal cancer screening. 

    Stool DNA tests

    The stool DNA test is a noninvasive test to screen for colon cancer. Stool DNA testing is intended to screen for colon cancer or precancerous polyps in people with no symptoms. This test identifies DNA changes in the cells of a stool sample and looks for abnormal DNA associated with colon cancer or polyps

    Screening for neck and head cancers

    This is a simple, quick procedure in which the doctor looks in the nose, mouth, and throat for abnormalities and feels for lumps in the neck. During a physical examination, the doctor feels for any lumps on the neck, lips, gums, and cheeks. The doctor will also inspect the nose, mouth, throat, and tongue for abnormalities, often using a light and a mirror for a clearer view. Blood and urine tests may be done to help diagnose cancer.

    Screening for Lung Cancer

    In screening for lung cancer, the doctor feels or checks for any lumps on the neck, lips, gums, and cheeks. The doctor will also inspect the nose, mouth, throat, and tongue for abnormalities, often using a light and a mirror for a clearer view. Blood and urine tests may be done to help diagnose cancer.

    Screening for Prostate Cancer

    The two major tests for prostate cancer screening include:

    Digital rectal exam (DRE)

    The digital rectal (DRE) exam is a physical examination of the rectum, the last few inches of the bowel, just above the anus. The doctor uses a gloved and lubricated finger to check for abnormalities of the anus and rectum. It takes about one to two minutes and, although it may cause some mild discomfort, it should not be painful. By feeling through the rectal wall, the doctor can also examine the surface of the prostate gland in men and some of the reproductive organs in women.

    Prostate-specific antigen test (PSA)

    The PSA test is a blood test used primarily to screen for prostate cancer. The test measures the amount of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in your blood. PSA is a protein produced by both cancerous and noncancerous tissue in the prostate, a small gland that sits below the bladder in males. PSA is mostly found in semen, which also is produced in the prostate. Small amounts of PSA ordinarily circulate in the blood. The PSA test can detect high levels of PSA that may indicate the presence of prostate cancer.

    REFERENCES

    Armbruster, D. A. (1993). Prostate-specific antigen: biochemistry, analytical methods, and clinical application. Clinical chemistry, 39(2), 181-195.

    Bhosle, P., Pathan, H., Tapadiya, G., & Alam, M. I. (2022). Case Study on Oropharyngeal Cancer Prediction and Diagnosis and Management Based upon MRI, CT Scan Imaging Techniques. Disruptive Developments in Biomedical Applications, 91.

    Emons, J., Fasching, P. A., Wunderle, M., Heindl, F., Rieger, J., Horn, F., … & Jud, S. M. (2020). Assessment of the additional clinical potential of X-ray dark-field imaging for breast cancer in a preclinical setup. Therapeutic advances in medical oncology, 12, 1758835920957932.

    Fekri-Ershad, S., & Ramakrishnan, S. (2022). Cervical cancer diagnosis based on modified uniform local ternary patterns and feed forward multilayer network optimized by genetic algorithm. Computers in Biology and Medicine, 144, 105392.

    Lee, T. C., Staller, K., Botoman, V., Pathipati, M. P., Varma, S., & Kuo, B. (2023). ChatGPT Answers Common Patient Questions About Colonoscopy. Gastroenterology.

    Schneider, K. A., Chittenden, A., & Shannon, K. M. (2023). Counseling about cancer: strategies for genetic counseling. John Wiley & Sons.

    Thomas, L. D., & Henn, M. C. (2021). Perfecting the Gastrointestinal Physical Exam: Findings and Their Utility and Examination Pearls. Emergency Medicine Clinics, 39(4), 689-702.

  • Understanding Esophageal Cancer: Symptoms, Risks, and When to Seek Help?

    Esophageal cancer is cancer that occurs in the esophagus — a long, hollow tube that runs from your throat to your stomach. Your esophagus helps move the food you swallow from the back of your throat to your stomach to be digested.

    Esophageal cancer usually begins in the cells that line the inside of the esophagus. Esophageal cancer can occur anywhere along the esophagus. More men than women get esophageal cancer.

    Esophageal cancer is the sixth most common cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Incidence rates vary within different geographic locations. In some regions, higher rates of esophageal cancer may be attributed to tobacco and alcohol use or particular nutritional habits and obesity.

    Symptoms

    Signs and symptoms of esophageal cancer include:

    • Difficulty swallowing (dysphagia)
    • Weight loss without trying
    • Chest pain, pressure or burning
    • Worsening indigestion or heartburn
    • Coughing or hoarseness

    Early esophageal cancer typically causes no signs or symptoms.

    When to see a doctor

    Make an appointment with your doctor if you have any persistent signs and symptoms that worry you.

    If you’ve been diagnosed with Barrett’s esophagus, a precancerous condition caused by chronic acid reflux, your risk of esophageal cancer is higher. Ask your doctor what signs and symptoms to watch for that may signal that your condition is worsening.

    Screening for esophageal cancer may be an option for people with Barrett’s esophagus. If you have Barrett’s esophagus, discuss the pros and cons of screening with your doctor.

  • Importance of Early Cancer Diagnosis

    Cancer is a deadly disease, which is not only detrimental to the health of the individual but wreaks havoc on the family members in many ways. Hence, early cancer diagnosis is crucial in the fight against the disease. Screening is an important aspect of comprehensive healthcare as it enables the identification of the disease before symptoms appears, making treatment more efficient and effective.

    When a patient’s cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, there is a much greater chance of being able to treat the disease successfully, often with less invasive procedures and fewer long-term side effects. But too many people are being diagnosed with cancer at later stages.

    It’s also important that we diagnose cancers as fast as possible so that treatment can start quickly, as accurately as possible – for example, identifying the genetic make-up of an individual’s tumor tells us how best to treat it – and that we diagnose relapse as early as possible. 

    The below are the significance of early cancer diagnosis

    • Detects cancer before it spreads, making treatment more simple and short.
    • Improves survival rates as early detection increases chances of successful treatment.
    • Reduces treatment costs, duration and minimizes the side effects of added and combined therapy.
    • Avoids suffering from symptoms caused by the progression of the disease.

    There are several different types of cancer screening tests that exist, including laboratory tests, physical exams and history analysis, genetic tests, and imaging procedures. Laboratory tests include blood tests and oral cancer and cervical screening tests, as well as tests for urine, tissue, and hormonal imbalances. A thorough physical exam, along with a review of personal and familial medical history, can also help predict the onset of cancer. Genetic tests look for genetic mutations that are indicative of some forms of cancer.

    Imaging procedures can provide pictures of the internal body for further analysis. It’s understandable to feel fear or anxiety when it comes to cancer screenings, but it’s important to overcome these fears. By facing the potential presence of cancer, you can take the first and proactive step towards eliminating the disease from your body. If the results are negative, you can rest easy knowing that you’re healthy. If the results are positive, it’s still best to know so you can take steps to prevent the spread of the disease and seek treatment. Early detection greatly increases the chances of successful treatment, so don’t let fear hold you back from taking control of your health.

    Early diagnosis of cancer focuses on detecting symptomatic patients as early as possible so they have the best chance for successful treatment. When cancer care is delayed or inaccessible there is a lower chance of survival, greater problems associated with treatment and higher costs of care. Early diagnosis improves cancer outcomes by providing care at the earliest possible stage and is therefore an important public health strategy in all settings.

    Screening is a different strategy than early diagnosis. It is defined as the presumptive identification of unrecognized disease in an apparently healthy, asymptomatic population by means of tests, examinations or other procedures that can be applied rapidly and easily to the target population. A screening programme must include all the core components in the screening process from inviting the target population to accessing effective treatment for individuals diagnosed with disease.

    Compared to early diagnosis, cancer screening is a distinct and more complex public health strategy that mandates additional resources, infrastructure and coordination. WHO recommends that screening programmes only be undertaken when their effectiveness has been demonstrated, when resources are sufficient to cover the target group, when facilities exist to confirm diagnoses and ensure treatment, and when the prevalence of the disease is high enough to justify screening.